What is female genital mutilation?

Female genital mutilation (sometimes abbreviated as FGM or referenced by other names) refers to all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for cultural or other non-medical reasons.

How many women and girls are affected?

An estimated 230 million girls and women have been subjected to some form of female genital mutilation. Female genital mutilation is currently documented in at least 94 countries around the world; girls and women who have undergone it live predominantly in the African and Asian continents.

An additional estimated 27 million more girls will undergo the practice by 2030, a number that is likely to increase with population growth if the current pace continues. From 2020 through 2022, COVID-19 disrupted programmes to prevent female genital mutilation, with an estimated one-third reduction in progress towards ending the practice by 2030. In 2026, UNFPA estimates that 4.5 million girls are at risk of female genital mutilation, over half of whom will be younger than 5 years old.

How does female genital mutilation affect the health of women and girls?

There is no health benefit from female genital mutilation. It increases the risks of immediate and long-term psychological and sexual and reproductive health complications.

Immediate risks include severe pain, shock, haemorrhage, tetanus or infection, urine retention, ulceration of the genital region and injury to adjacent tissue, wound infection, urinary infection, fever and septicaemia. Haemorrhage and infection can be severe enough to cause death.

Long-term consequences include psychological trauma, complications during childbirth, anaemia, the formation of cysts and abscesses, keloid scar formation, urinary incontinence, dyspareunia (painful sexual intercourse), sexual dysfunction, hypersensitivity of the genital area and potentially increased risk of HIV transmission.

Infibulation – or type III female genital mutilation – makes up 15 per cent of all cases and is the severest form. A covering seal is made by cutting and appositioning the labia minora or labia majora, with or without excision of the clitoral prepuce and glans, leaving a small opening for urine and menstrual blood. This type may result in urinary disorders or infections, and can lead menstrual flow to accumulate in the vagina and uterus, causing chronic pelvic pain and infertility. Because infibulation creates a physical barrier, engaging in sexual intercourse or giving birth require the vulvar scar to be re-opened (de-infibulation).

What are the consequences for childbirth?

Women who have undergone female genital mutilation face a significantly greater risk than those who have not of requiring a Caesarean section or a surgical incision of the perineum to enlarge the vaginal opening and an extended hospital stay, and post-partum haemorrhage.

Women who have undergone infibulation, or type III, are more likely to suffer from prolonged and obstructed labour, sometimes resulting in stillbirth and early neonatal death. 

The cost of treating the total health impacts of female genital mutilation is estimated to be $1.4 billion globally per year.

Is there a link between female genital mutilation and the risk of HIV infection?

There is no clear direct association between female genital mutilation and HIV infection, although using the same instrument on multiple girls or women when performing female genital mutilation could increase the risk of HIV infection. Further, HIV risk may increase due to laceration of scar tissue during sexual intercourse or using unsafe blood transfusions to treat severe post-partum haemorrhage, a condition that is more likely among women subjected to female genital mutilation.

What are the psychological effects of female genital mutilation?

Female genital mutilation can cause immediate or prolonged psychological impacts, such as post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety disorders, depression and somatic (physical) complaints such as aches or pains with no organic cause.

What are the different types of female genital mutilation?

The World Health Organization defines four types of female genital mutilation as follows:

Type I: Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and/or the prepuce.

Type II, also called excision: Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia minora, with or without excision of the labia majora. The amount of tissue that is removed varies widely from community to community.

Type III, also called infibulation: Narrowing of the vaginal orifice with a covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting and re-positioning the labia minora and/or the labia majora. This can take place with or without removal of the clitoral glans/prepuce.

Type IV: All other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, for example: pricking, piercing, incising, scraping or cauterization.

De-infibulation refers to a medically recommended procedure for girls or women who have undergone type III female genital mutilation, in order to improve health and well-being, allow sexual intercourse and facilitate childbirth. The scar tissue covering the urethral and vaginal opening is cut and the edges stitched to create an opening.

Re-infibulation is a non-medical procedure of narrowing the vaginal opening again in a woman who has been de-infibulated, usually performed after childbirth.

Which types are most common?

Types I and II are the most common globally, but there is variation in how they are performed between and within countries. About 15 per cent of all women subjected to female genital mutilation undergo Type III (infibulation), which is reported mostly in Somalia, Sudan and Djibouti.

Why are there different terms to describe female genital mutilation, such as female genital cutting and female circumcision?

UNFPA recommends the use of the term “female genital mutilation”, in line with international commitments and resolutions made in the UN General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council. In Resolution 67/146, Member States clearly agreed that female genital mutilation should be used to refer to this harmful practice. The use of the word “mutilation” also emphasizes the gravity of the act and reinforces that it is a violation of women’s and girls’ fundamental human rights, including the rights to health, bodily integrity, and freedom from violence and discrimination.

“Female circumcision” is often used loosely as a parallel to “male circumcision” in Africa and Asia. While male circumcision has been shown to scientifically reduce HIV transmission, female genital mutilation in all its forms is harmful. Importantly, male circumcision is a surgical standard procedure that removes the penile prepuce circumferentially, unlike female genital mutilation, which is a wide range of tissue removed or injured from different parts of external female genitalia. Therefore, the term “female genital mutilation” is preferred because it establishes a clear distinction from male circumcision.

Furthermore, “female genital cutting” is not synonymous with female genital mutilation practices, which encompass a wide range of injuries to external genital tissue, including cauterization or the application of chemicals, and not limited to “cutting” only.

However, UNFPA recognizes that individuals working at community level need to use relevant colloquial terms in dialogues and discussions to facilitate communication.

Which terminology does UNFPA use?

UNFPA recognizes the gravity of this act and its violation of human rights for women and girls, including the rights to health, bodily integrity, and freedom from violence and discrimination. UNFPA uses the term “female genital mutilation” in alignment with terminology in international commitments and resolutions. The term is used in a number of UN and intergovernmental documents, such as the 2024 UN Secretary General’s report (A/79/514) on intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilation.

What are the origins of female genital mutilation?

The origins of female genital mutilation are unclear. It is believed to predate the rise of Christianity and Islam, appearing as early as the Stone Age in Equatorial Guinea. Historians such as Herodotus claim that, in the fifth century BC, the Phoenicians, the Hittites and the Ethiopians practised it. As recent as the 1950s, it was practised in Western Europe and the United States to treat perceived ailments. In other words, the practice has been followed by many different peoples and societies across the ages and continents.

At what age is female genital mutilation performed?

The age when female genital mutilation is performed varies across different societies and over time. It is typically performed either during childhood, before marriage, during a woman’s first pregnancy or after the birth of her first child. Recent surveys show that the age when it is performed is shifting and decreasing in some countries.

Where is female genital mutilation practised?

Female genital mutilation is currently documented in at least 94 countries around the world, highlighting the global nature of this harmful practice and the need for a comprehensive response to eliminate it. Countries where it is practised include:

Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Libya, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, the United Republic of Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Asia: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, the Maldives, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Viet Nam.

Europe: Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 

Oceania: Australia, New Zealand. 

The Americas: Canada, Colombia, United States of America.

The Middle East: Bahrain, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the Syrian Arab Republic, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen.

Who performs female genital mutilation?

Female genital mutilation is mostly performed by traditional practitioners who are mostly elderly women who have been handed down the craft through generations. Other traditional practitioners include (male) barbers, members of secret societies, herbalists or sometimes a female relative.

There is a concerning trend of health workers performing the practice, which is referred to as ‘medicalized female genital mutilation’. According to the latest estimates, around 2 in 3 girls who have undergone female genital mutilation are reported to have been subjected to it at the hands of a health worker. Medicalized female genital mutilation is more prevalent among younger women than older women, with a rate of 34 per cent of adolescents aged15 to19, compared with 16 per cent of women between the ages of 45 and 49.

The countries where the majority of female genital mutilation cases are performed by health workers are Sudan (67 per cent), Egypt (38 per cent), Guinea (15 per cent), Kenya (15 per cent) and Nigeria (13 per cent).

What instruments are used to perform female genital mutilation?

Most cases are carried out with special knives, scissors, scalpels, pieces of glass or razor blades. Anaesthetics and antiseptics are generally not used unless the procedure is carried out by health workers. In communities where infibulation is practised, girls’ legs are often bound together to immobilize them for 10 to 14 days to facilitate the formation of scar tissue.

Why is female genital mutilation performed?

Female genital mutilation is driven by gender inequality and damaging social norms, rooted in traditional beliefs that are passed down through generations. These are often unquestioned and enforced by societal impacts, such as marriage for those who have undergone the practice and ostracism for those who have not.

These societal rules make it difficult for individuals or families to abandon female genital mutilation: The immediate or long-term health complications are overlooked as the perceived social benefits are deemed greater than its disadvantages.

The reasons given for practising female genital mutilation generally fall into four categories:

Psychosexual reasons: Female genital mutilation is carried out as a way to control women’s sexuality, and is incorrectly thought to ensure virginity before marriage and fidelity afterward, and to increase male sexual pleasure.

Sociological and cultural rites: Female genital mutilation is seen as part of a girl’s initiation into womanhood and as a requirement for marriage.

Hygiene and aesthetic reasons: In some communities, the external female genitalia are considered dirty and ugly and are removed, ostensibly to promote hygiene and aesthetic appeal. Related myths about female genitalia (for example that mutilation will enhance fertility or promote child survival) also perpetuate the harmful practice.

Religious reasons: Although female genital mutilation is not endorsed by either Islam or Christianity, supposed religious doctrine is often used to justify it.

Is female genital mutilation required by certain religions?

No religious text promotes or condones female genital mutilation. Still, more than half of girls and women in four out of 14 countries where data are available believe it is a religious requirement. Although often perceived as being connected to Islam, perhaps because it is practised among some Muslim groups, not all Islamic groups practise it, and many non-Islamic groups do, including some Christians, Ethiopian Jews and followers of certain traditional African religions. Further religious and cultural values and rites are deeply intertwined in many societies, adding complexity in differentiating them from each other.

Many religious leaders, scholars and institutions have denounced female genital mutilation and rejected its links to religion.

Since female genital mutilation is part of a cultural tradition, can it still be condemned?

Yes. Culture and tradition provide a framework for human well-being, and cultural arguments cannot be used to condone violence against people – male or female. Moreover, culture is not static, but constantly changing and adapting. Nevertheless, activities for the elimination of female genital mutilation should be developed and implemented in a way that is sensitive to the cultural and social background of the communities that practise it. Behaviour can be changed when people understand the hazards of certain practices and realize that it is possible to give them up without losing meaningful aspects of their culture.

Does anyone have the right to interfere in age-old cultural traditions such as female genital mutilation?

Every child has the right to be protected from harm in all settings and at all times. The movement to end female genital mutilation, often local in origin, is intended to protect girls from profound, permanent and completely unnecessary harm. The evidence shows that most people in affected countries want to stop the practice, and that overall support for it is declining even in countries where it is almost common (such as Egypt and Sudan). Ending it will take intensive and sustained collaboration from all parts of society, including families and communities, religious and other leaders, the media, governments and the international community.

Is there any link between female genital mutilation and specific populations?

There is no clear association between female genital mutilation and specific populations. It is reported in at least 94 countries in multiple and diverse populations. 

What do women and girls who have experienced female genital mutilation say about it themselves?

Women around the world are speaking out about their experiences and advocating for change:

“I will never subject my child to [female genital mutilation] if she happens to be a girl, and I will teach her the consequences of the practice early on.” –Kadiga

“In my village, there is one girl who is younger than I am who has not been cut because I discussed the issue with her parents. I told them how much the operation had hurt me, how it had traumatized me and made me not trust my own parents. They decided they did not want this to happen to their daughter.” –Meaza

“I never wanted anyone to go through the pain I went through.” –Mumina

What does the term “medicalization of female genital mutilation” mean?

According to the World Health Organization, the medicalization of female genital mutilation is when a health worker, such as a midwife, nurse or doctor, performs female genital mutilation or re-infibulation, whether in a health facility or elsewhere. The 2010 report Global strategy to stop healthcare providers from performing female genital mutilation, released jointly by the UN and international professional bodies, outlines efforts to prevent this. The World Health Organization released updated guidelines in 2025 on the management of health complications from the harmful practice.

Isn’t it safer for female genital mutilation to be performed by a skilled health worker rather than by somebody without a medical background?

Female genital mutilation can never be “safe.” Even when the procedure is performed in a sterile environment and by a health worker, there can be severe health consequences that are immediate and can span a lifetime. Medicalizing female genital mutilation gives a false sense of safety. There are serious risks associated with all forms of the practice, including when it is medicalized.

In addition, there is no medical justification for the practice, and it goes against the professional code of conduct to do no harm. Advocating any form of harm to the genitals of girls and women and suggesting that health workers should perform it is unacceptable from a public health and human rights perspective.

Furthermore, the belief that female genital mutilation performed by a health worker is less severe is unfounded. It is reported that girls can be subjected to it repeatedly when members of their family or community are dissatisfied with the results of earlier procedures. One study from Sudan, where close to 7 out of 10 women and girls undergo medicalized female genital mutilation, found that more severe forms had been carried out than perceived. When health workers – who often hold power, authority and respect in society – perform female genital mutilation, they wrongly legitimize it as medically sound or beneficial for the health of girls and women.

What is UNFPA's approach to female genital mutilation?

UNFPA is at the forefront of global efforts to eliminate female genital mutilation, leading initiatives to protect and empower girls and women. Elimination of the harmful practice is grounded within UNFPA’s transformative results in its strategic plans, including the current 2026–2029 plan. Through its offices in 94 countries where it is reported, UNFPA provides technical guidance, advocacy and strategic support to strengthen policies, improve multisector prevention and care interventions, and shift social norms. In addition, UNFPA and UNICEF jointly lead the largest global programme to accelerate the elimination of female genital mutilation. This programme works with governments, civil society organizations, networks of religious leaders, parliamentarians, youth and human rights activists, academia and grassroots groups to:

• Support the development of policies and legislation and ensure adequate resources to end female genital mutilation.
• Amplify interventions that expand collective knowledge about the harms of female genital mutilation and empower champions towards its elimination.
• Facilitate girls’ and women’s movements to end female genital mutilation.
• Empower young people to end female genital mutilation in their communities.
• Stop the medicalization of female genital mutilation through health policies and funded health-sector interventions, building the knowledge and skills of health workers, strengthening monitoring, evaluation and accountability, and creating supportive legislative and regulatory frameworks.
• Integrate female genital mutilation responses into sexual and reproductive health, maternal and child health and child-protection services, as well with humanitarian-development nexuses – areas that offer entry points for identifying and supporting girls and women who are at risk or have been subjected to female genital mutilation.
• Mainstream information about female genital mutilation into health training programmes; mobilize doctors, nurses and midwives in support of prevention and survivor care; and empower health providers to serve as role models, counsellors and advocates to end the harmful practice.
• Establish a global knowledge hub to measure social norms and disseminate good practices for policy-making and improved programming, as outlined by the UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme..

The Joint Programme recognizes that eliminating female genital mutilation requires communities to make a collective and coordinated choice so that no single girl or family is disadvantaged by the decision.

This approach has seen progress: Civil society organizations are implementing community-led education and dialogue sessions on human rights and health, which are helping a growing number of communities to declare their abandonment of female genital mutilation. A shift has also occurred among religious leaders, many of whom have moved from endorsing the practice to actively condemning it. A growing number of public declarations have unlinked female genital mutilation from religion and supported its abandonment.

In which countries is female genital mutilation banned by law?

According to the 2025 edition of the World Bank’s Compendium of International and National Legal Frameworks on Female Genital Mutilation, 92 countries have domestic legislation that either specifically prohibits the practice of female genital mutilation or allows it to be prosecuted through other laws, such as the criminal or penal code, or laws on child protection, violence against women or domestic violence.

Asia and Pacific: Australia (including analysis for New South Wales, Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia), Bangladesh, Brunei, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand.

Europe: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Latin America and the Caribbean: Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago.

North America: Canada, the United States of America .

Northern Africa and the Middle East: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq (including analysis for the Kurdistan Region), Kuwait, and Yemen.

Sub-Saharan Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Comoros, the Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia*, South Africa, Sudan, South Sudan, the United Republic of Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Penalties range from a minimum of six months to a maximum of life in prison. Several countries also include monetary fines in the penalty.

*Somalia’s constitution expressly states that the “circumcision of girls is prohibited.” Progress has been observed at the regional level, notably through legislative initiatives in Somaliland, Galmudug and Jubaland. However, there is no national legislation that effectively implements this constitutional prohibition or reinforces regional laws. To date, there are no known instances where female genital mutilation offences have been prosecuted under general criminal provisions. A female genital mutilation bill has been stuck in the legislative process for several years.

What does the International Conference on Population and Development Programme of Action say about female genital mutilation?

The Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development. It states, “In a number of countries, harmful practices meant to control women’s sexuality have led to great suffering. Among them is the practice of female genital cutting, which is a violation of basic rights and a major lifelong risk to women’s health” (para 7.35).

The Programme of Action calls for governments and communities to urgently take steps to stop the practice and protect women and girls from all such forms of violence. 

Which international and regional instruments can be referenced for the elimination of female genital mutilation?

Most governments in countries where female genital mutilation is practised have ratified international conventions and declarations that make provisions for the promotion and protection of the health of women and girls. For example: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees; International Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; the Convention on the Rights of the Child; the Vienna Declaration and the Programme of Action of the World Conference on Human Rights; the Platform for Action of the Fourth World Conference on Women; the The Girl Child Resolution (A/RES/51/76); the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights; the Addis Ababa Declaration on Violence against Women; the Banjul Declaration; the UN Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee; Key Actions for the Further Implementation of the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development; Further Actions and Initiatives to Implement the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action; the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa; the Girl Child Resolution (A/RES/62/140); the Commission of the Status of Women; the Convention of the Council of Europe on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence; European Parliament Resolution of 14 June 2012 the Sustainable Development Goals under Target 5.3 the Declaration and Action Plan to End Cross-border Female Genital Mutilation; the Saleema Initiative on the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation.

Updated 5 February 2026